What is the purpose of government in the United States Essay

What is the purpose of government in the United States - Essay Example Seeking to explore the purpose of the US government with respect to the roles that it plays in the modern 21st century, the following will argue that there are many roles for the government of the United States. These include the promotion and continuation of democratic governance, economic development, the provision of social services, promoting justice and securing the nation from outside threat. All of the functions are inherent to the purpose of the United States. We now turn to an exploration of the government of the United States of America and its role as the torchbearer of democracy (Almond et al, 101-102). . One of the most important functions of the government of the United States is the promotion of liberal democracy. In a liberal democratic society, power rests with the people. Liberal democracy can be characterized by free and fair elections, universal suffrage and a plural society in which power is transferred through peaceful political means. Accordingly, stability in much of the world is defined as the establishment of both democracy and democratic rules of governance. By giving everyone a voice at the ballot, the argument follows that the political regime which gains power will be perceived as being legitimate and the result will be political stability. Accordingly, the role of the United States government is to ensure that political power is transferred through peaceful means and that political contiguity is maintained through the democratic system. As an entrenched cultural value of the United States, the promotion of liberal democracy is an important task for the government o f the United States. The promotion of economic development is another responsibility for the government of the United States. As a society with a capitalist economic system, the government of the United manages the economic system while understanding the importance of free

Construction law cases Case Study Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

Construction law cases - Case Study Example The contractor could have requested for Request For Information on the matter. A consultant engineer entered into a contract with City of San Marcos. A written consent was required to any modification from the client to contractor. A request was orally done in modification of scope of work which is in contrast to the contractor. The charter of the city allowed oral contracts to contractors possessing requisite authority. The agreement between the client and contractor in this case reveals that the contractor possessed requisite authority. Any modification in the scope of work was binding be in in writing or verbal. The consultant is therefore obliged to carry out the scope of work and claim for payment upon completion. The contractor subcontracted part of the work. The contractor made oral request to the sub contractor who claimed for compensation. Communication in execution of work must always be in writing. If the subcontractor executed work that was orally communicated by the contractor, the contractor is not obliged to any claim. This is because it was a non approved mode of communication according to the tender document. Secondly, the subcontractor cannot claim for any payment from the client because the contract is binding between the client and the general contractor. In this case, the subcontractor claims a breach of contractor by the general contractor for not paying him upon completion of work. The general contractor claimed that he had not received payments from the client for the work executed by the subcontractor. According to the â€Å"Paid if Paid† clause, the subcontractor does not have any link with the client and the contractor has no right to withholds payments to the subcontractor. This is exceptional for a case where the contractor indicated in the contract document that sub contractor will receive payment after payment has been made to the contractor by the client. However, the contractor should not more than what the client owns

An Illusion for the Masses Essay Example for Free

An Illusion for the Masses Essay â€Å"Patriotism is the last refuge of the scoundrel.† So said 18th Century British writer Samuel Johnson. One can start to think about patriotism in its many forms but still arrive at the same juncture, it is simply people’s need to align themselves with a larger identity. This larger identity could range from a neighbourhood to a sports team to a nation. Finding security, seeking pleasure, are, in my humble opinion, the most basic of human motives, which patriotism helps indulge. It evokes a sense of belonging, instilling the illusion of safety among a mass. Patriotism in its present form, surely, is a human construct. True, it could be argued that it is derived from the primeval habit of being territorial, but territorialism has never really reached the giddying heights or (depending on how you look at it) the appalling depths of patriotism. What does it mean to be patriotic? Amman Madan, writes in the wake of the immensely violent Godhra riots, â€Å"Today when the burnt heaps in Gujarat are still smouldering, when Ayodhya promises to catch fire any day, it is necessary to examine a central question: what is patriotism? Where do its roots lie?† (Madan, Para 1) The dictionary definition of the term covers all manners of sins devoted love, support, and defence of ones country; national loyalty. With the gross amount of connotations both political and emotional attached to that word, one is bound to be confused whether it is sheer naà ¯vety on the general public’s part or a sizeable chunk of cynicism on mine. After more than 60 years of independence one feels the need to rethink and redefine patriotism, is it a sign of loyalty to the nation or a misused sentiment? In a very direct yet in a seemingly deceptive way, nationalism is by all regards, an illusion. I use the word illusion in relation to patriotism in the literal sense that it is a tool wielded by many a manipulators to influence and corrupt an impressionable mind into doing their bidding. In his seminal lecture â€Å"Is Patriotism a Virtue?† Alasdair Macintyre contrasts patriotism with the liberal commitment to certain universal values and principles. He states that Patriotism is not the idea of loving\fighting for one’s country. It is but simply, â€Å"A loyalty to a particular nation which only those possessing that nationality can have.† He goes on to talk about how â€Å"patriotism is a not a virtue because it is not to judge form an impersonal standpoint. An impersonal standpoint involves judging independently of ones own interests, affections, and social position. In this, one must abstract oneself from particularity and partiality.† In modern times patriotism is often used out of context or in a convolutedly romanticised way. The Jihad, the American â€Å"War on Terror†, the Arab -Israeli conflict, The Indo-Pak conflict and many other current scenarios are an effect of a (usually) misplaced sense of patriotism present in large pockets throughout the organisation, which is again exploited by their respective political heads. While ploughing through pages of information on patriotism online for this paper, I found a rather disconcerting article on a seemingly innocent website titled â€Å"India Parenting†; the article was titled â€Å"Do You Instil Patriotism in Your Children?† It `goes on to say that â€Å"Children have to be told the significance of their country. Otherwise, they are bound to grow up without any special fond feelings for their country. Such discipline helps to shape them into responsible citizens†. However, it fails to state anywhere in the article as to how exactly one is supposed to believe that knowing the national anthem, or the date of independence makes one socially responsible. When looking at patriotism it is especially important to distinguish it from nationalism. India as a â€Å"nation† never existed before August 15, 1947, so the structure of nationalism, as we know it today, began only since. The patriotism that existed pre-independence was one f uelled by a desire to rid India of the British Raj. What composes todays patriotism, with insignia like the National Flag and the National Anthem? Can streams of plastic imitation flags which are soon strewn across the school playground or discarded in dustbins be symbols of India? (Rajagopal,H. Para 3) â€Å"Nothing could be more calamitous than for patriotism to become established with the religion of a country.† (Eastman, Para 1) Written in 1917, these prophetic words were horrifically realized during the Partition of the Sub-Continent. In a couple of months in the summer of 1947, close to a million people were slaughtered on both sides in the religious rioting, all in the name of two distinct nations for different religions. This tumultuous time blurred the line irreversibly between religion and patriotism in the sub -continent, to this day quite a large chunk of religious slurs that are hurled around are essentially contriv ed forms of an â€Å"anti-national† or vice versa. Patriotism, over time has acquired a fair share of critics including Russian novelist and thinker Leo Tolstoy, who is famous to have stated that patriotism: â€Å"..Is stupid because every patriot holds his own country to be the best of all whereas, obviously, only one country can qualify. It is immoral because it enjoins us to promote our countrys interests at the expense of all other countries and by any means, including war, and is thus at odds with the most basic rule of morality, which tells us not to do to others what we would not want them to do to us† I find myself being very sceptical of people, or â€Å"patriots who say they would die for their country, it’s important not to misunderstand me at this juncture, I do not mean to trivialise the millions that have died, but my problem with that statement is a simple one. We humans are, quintessentially, selfish and we constantly seek pleasure or personal gain, so the idea of one’s profound sacrifice for one’s country just for the betterment of one’s â€Å"nation† is a rather sketchy one. There is always that stench of a sneaky ulterior motive behind seeking martyrdom, it could be the promise of 7 virgins waiting in heaven to fulfil one’s fantasies or even just the lure of possible immortality associated with a death, â€Å"Men willingly believe what they wish.†(Caesar, Julius) It is the self- delusion that they indulge themselves in, constantly hiding beneath the broad banner of patriotism is something that doesn’t really work for me. Fundamentally, I’m saying that one needn’t try to fool themselves and others (however romantic it may sound) of their motives, just look at it for what it really is, it is all but just another glorified way to get what you want. The immensely successful (and one might even have the cheek to say patriotic) General George S. Patton, in all his honesty, is famous to have said, â€Å"The object of war is not to die for your country but to make the other bastard die for his.† Bibliography Macintyre, Alasdair. â€Å"Is Patriotism a Virtue?† (The Lindley Lecture), of Kansas. Reprinted in Primoratz (ed.) (2002). Lawrence: University Madan, Amman. â€Å"What is Patriotism?† The Hindu, April (2002): 7 Tolstoy, Leo and â€Å"Patriotism, or Peace?† Society http://www.salsa.net/peace/conv/8weekconv7-3.html. Philadelphia: New India Parenting, â€Å"Do You Instil Patriotism in Your Children?†, 8-03-11 http://www.indiaparenting.com/raisingchildren/253_1357/do-you-instill-patriotism-in-your-children.html Rajagopal, Harini, â€Å"Patriotism: an alternative view† The Hindu Online, September 01, 2001http://www.hinduonnet.com/2001/09/01/stories/13011106.htm 15-03-11 Eastman, Max, â€Å"The Religion of Patriotism†, Marxist, July 1917 http://www.marxists.org/history/etol/writers/eastman/works/1910s/patriot.htm 15-03-01

A Review Of Rabies Virus Biology Essay

A Review Of Rabies Virus Biology Essay Imagine a disease which had no treatment option once you felt its symptoms. Unless you had suspicion that you were potentially infected, you would get misdiagnosed and you would die in isolation, restrained, and heavily drugged (3). Unfortunately such a disease is a reality. Rabies virus results in nearly 100% fatality if not treated, and is responsible for over 55,000 human deaths every year, which is likely a conservative estimate due to under reporting and misdiagnosis (3). Rabies is caused by a Baltimore Class 5 virus in the order Mononegavirales. Rabies virus is in genus Lyssavirus, and its species designation is Lyssavirus rabies (4). Rabies virus is pathologically characteristic in its neuroinvasiveness and neurotropism, traveling up the nervous system from the wound site and into the brain where it causes severe neuropathology and death (1). This paper aims to explore the major components and mechanisms of Rabies virus, the disease caused by this virus, its treatments, and t he public health impact of the disease. Rabies virus is characterized morphologically under an electron microscope by its â€Å"bullet† shaped dimensions, densely studded with glycoprotein projections in the membrane. The virus itself is fairly simple, being composed of only five proteins and its single-stranded, antisense, RNA genome 12 kb in length. The most important protein pathogenically is the glycoprotein encoded by the virus. This glycoprotein forms roughly 400 trimeric projections on the surface of the envelope, and is a major contributor in the virus capability to spread cell-to-cell (1,4). The glycoprotein is also highly antigenic and may be responsible for the triggering of apoptosis in neural tissue. The apoptotic cells are thought to be very slowly cleared from the CNS, and result in the necrosis of the tissue in that area (1). Matrix protein is produced by Rabies virus and essentially holds the envelope containing glycoprotein to the core of the virus (3,4). It is also matrix protein that is responsi ble for bullet morphology of rabies virus and its budding capability from host cells (4,3). The core of the virus is composed of the (-) RNA genome bound by nucleoprotein which coils it into a helixed ribonucleoprotein core or RNPC. Phosphoprotein and polymerase associate with the RNPC and form the remainder of the virus core contained inside of the matrix protein capsid (4). Rabies virus has a similar life cycle to typical Baltimore class 5 enveloped viruses. Replication takes place in the cytoplasm, in specialized compartments known as Negri bodies. These areas were previously the most effective characteristic in diagnosing rabies histologically. The cycle begins with the binding of the virus envelope to the host cell, most likely through the glycoprotein trimers found on the surface. Rabies virus shows a cellular tropism for nerve cells, but can also utilize muscle cells. The virus enters the cell by pinocytosis. The virus then fuses with the endosome due to the change in pH and injects the RNPC into the cytoplasm. The RNA dependent RNA polymerase that the virus brought with it goes to work, transcribing the antisense RNA into sense RNA for use by the host cells ribosomes. The viral polymerase attaches 5 caps and poly-adenylate tails to the RNA before translation into the five viral proteins. The glycoprotein made by the host ribosomes undergoes modif ication by the Golgi complex and endoplasmic reticulum before migrating to the plasma membrane of the cell. The concentration of nucleoprotein versus the concentration of leader RNA triggers the shift from protein production to genome replication. Genome replication occurs in the same manner as other Baltimore class 5 viruses. The replicated (-) RNA genome is bound by nucleoprotein which creates the helixed ribonucleoprotein core, after which phosphoprotein and polymerase bind and complete the core of the virus. Matrix proteins then bind around the RNPC and forms the bullet shaped capsid. The M-RNPC then travels through the cytoplasm and buds from areas of the plasma membrane that have high concentrations of glycoprotein. The complete rabies virus is then capable of infection (4). Rabies is transmitted by an infected animals saliva getting into the tissues of a healthy mammal. Rabies is unable to penetrate intact skin, therefore most cases of infection occur following a bite or scratch from an infected animal (3). The virus enters the body through the wound and travels from the wound site to the brain by using the hosts nerves. Rabies virus is capable of this retrograde axonal transport because it can combine cell-to-cell spread and trans-synaptic spread, although we are unaware of how trans-synaptic spread is carried out (1). There is evidence that these methods of movement are made possible, and are controlled by, the glycoprotein that coats the Rabies virus membrane (1). The virus replicates within the nerves, slowly making its way to the brain and salivary glands at the rate of 15-100 mm per day (2). As the virus makes its way up the nerves, it causes no symptoms and is not transmissible through saliva. This period is known as the incubation period and ca n last from 3 weeks to 6 years (2,4). The rate of spread in the nervous system depends on the virus uptake rate by the nerve cells, the speed of axonal transport, the rate of replication, and the strains capacity for trans-synaptic spread (1). Rabies virus typically has a low replication rate, and experimentally this has been seen to have an inverse relationship with pathogenicity, possibly due to the evasion of the immune system through low viral load. The low replication rate could also be beneficial to pathogenicity by preserving the nerves used to travel into the CNS (1). Once in the CNS, the virus can follow the facial and glossopharyngeal cranial nerves to the salivary glands, which it infects and buds virus into the acinar lumen (5,4). The virus continues to travel up into the brainstem and brain where it causes the first of the clinical symptoms. There are several theories as to how rabies virus conducts its neuropathogenesis, the first being that the virus shuts down host m aintenance genes and reduces protein production in neural tissue. The second theory proposes that the virus interferes with serotonin binding and release. The third theory is that glycoprotein pushes neurons into apoptotic pathways and the resulting dead cells do not get cleared from the CNS and cause necrosis of the surrounding cells. The remaining theories center on inactivation of voltage gated ion channels (1). The neuropathology of rabies results in quickly progressing and devastating symptoms. Upon experiencing the first clinical symptom, the individual typically has 1-7 days before death and has no chance of recovery. The first clinical symptom is neuropathic pain and tingling at the wound site after healing (4). This is caused by viral replication in the dorsal root ganglion of the afferent sensory nerve from the wound site causing action potential generation (2). The major clinical symptoms: fever, headache, fatigue, anxiety, agitation, confusion, hallucinations, and insomnia are not unique to rabies and cannot be used as a diagnostic tool. These symptoms are likely caused by an inflammation of the brain, spinal cord, and nerve roots (2,4). Clinical progression usually follows one of two routes: furious rabies in which there is extreme agitation and aggression, or dumb rabies in which there is early onset paralysis and decreased activity (3). Both eventually lead to paralysis, coma, a nd the shutdown of the respiratory system, resulting in death (3). The aggression caused by furious rabies as well as the heavily salivation, and saliva transmission all combine into a very effective transmission strategy for the virus (4). Treatment of rabies virus infection must be done early and aggressively. Immune response to rabies virus is much lower than comparable diseases, which is surprising considering that glycoprotein is highly antigenic. In addition, compromised immunity had no effect on rabies pathogenesis, which means the pathology we see in healthy humans is as bad as the disease can get (1). Treatment must be carried out before clinical symptoms set in, as the treatment only acts to stop the virus from reaching the brain. Post-exposure prophylactic treatment regimens consist of cell-cultured vaccine administration, and in dire cases, administration of immunoglobulin upstream of the wound to stop disease progression and also at the local wound site to stop infiltration (3). Preventative treatment consists of a course of vaccines and the irrigation of potential infected wounds with a povidone-iodine solution (4). With early post-exposure prophylactic treatment, recovery is nearly 100%. However, if post -exposure prophylactic treatment is started after invasion of the CNS and presentation of clinical symptoms, treatment is usually ineffective (3). If clinical symptoms begin, treatment paradigms shift to a supportive role, usually consisting of isolation to prevent transmission, heavy sedation to avoid awareness and agitation, and IV morphine to alleviate clinical symptoms (2). Rabies virus has caused disease on every continent except for Antarctica (3). The disease claims at least 55,000 human lives each year, with untold numbers of wild animals. The heaviest disease burden is in developing countries in Africa and Asia, with these two continents accounting for 95% of the total deaths recorded each year. It is therefore apparent that rabies case numbers are capable of being sizably reduced, but a lack in infrastructure will always be the biggest obstacle. There are several factors to consider when questioning why rabies is so prevalent in developing countries, the first of which is that rabies is under reported, and frequently misdiagnosed unless a post-mortem diagnosis is made, therefore the data concerning rabies health impact is lower than actual. The second cause of high rabies burden in developing countries is directly related to the last; low estimates of the disease cause a lack, or disproportionate level, of support and attention on a governmental level. The third cause is that rabies disease loads are not equally distributed across society. As we frequently see in disease of the developing world, the rural poor are most likely to get infected and die from this disease. In the case of rabies, rural children from poor families are at highest risk of the disease not only due to their lack of education about rabies and lack of money for full treatment, but also because children are more likely to play with stray dogs, the main carrier of rabies from animals to humans and seen as the source in 30-60% of rabies cases in children under 15 years old. Animal workers are also very likely to be exposed, as are those who spend a significant amount of time outdoors, whether for work or leisure (2). While dogs are the most common source of rabies transmission to humans, the main reservoirs of the disease are wild animals. Raccoons, bats, wild foxes, skunks, and wolves are the largest reservoirs of disease and their transmission to dogs accounts for the resulting human infection. Therefore, the most cost effective rabies containment program is centered on dog vaccination, although it is still a heavy financial drain on society. The estimated cost in the United States for rabies prevention and treatment each year is $300 million (2). However, cost depends on many factors including the characteristics of post-exposure prophylactic treatment (PEP). The cost for PEP can vary depending on the vaccine used, the regimen of the vaccine administration, the type of immunoglobulin used, and the route by which all of this is administered. In Asia and Africa the estimated cost of PEP treatment annually was $583 million. The bulk of the cost was incurred by Asia due to its heavy use of PEP tr eatment. On African and Asian continents the annual estimated cost of lost livestock due to rabies was $12.3 million, while a 1985 estimate by Latin American countries estimated their annual lost cattle at 100,000 head, with a total cost of $30 million per year. On the local level, a course of PEP is roughly $40 in Asia and $49 in Africa. While this may not seem like much, when annual income is only a few hundred dollars per year per person, the cost becomes roughly 30-50 days of work per adult. Many infected people do not want to go to the hospital for treatment due to the amount of missed work, and some of the more archaic vaccines still used in some developing countries can cause side effects lasting up to six months. However, even with the high cost treatment still saves tens-of-thousands of lives each year. The estimated number of deaths if PEP treatment was not used is approximately 330,000 in Asia and Africa (2). Rabies virus causes tremendous, fatal disease in the developing world and its presence is far too common for the level of effective prevention and treatment available. Rabies still claims over 55,000 lives each year, largely in developing countries in Africa and Asia. This simple Baltimore Class 5 virus packs quite lethal punch in its ironically bullet shaped capsid, and shows incredible tenacity in its host (4). Although it is unlikely due to the heavy wild animal reservoirs, ridding the world of this disease would be a tremendous removal of burden from mankind and animals. References: 1) Dietzschold, Bernhard, Jianwei Li, Milosz Faber, and Matthias Schnell. Concepts in the pathogenesis of rabies. Future virology. 3.5 (2008): 481-490. Print. 2) United Nations. WHO Expert Consultation on Rabies. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2005. Web. 30 March 2010. 3) United Nations. Human and Animal Rabies. Geneva: World Health Organization, 2010. Web. 31 March 2010. . 4) United States. Rabies. Atlanta: Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2010. Web. 31 March 2010. . 5) Waxman, Stephen. Clinical Neuroanatomy. 25th ed. New York: Lange Medical Books/McGraw-Hill, 2003. 113,119. Print.

Physical Value in Keats Ode on a Grecian Urn Essay -- Ode on a Grecia

Physical Value in Keats' Ode on a Grecian Urn The poetry of John Keats contains many references to physical things, from nightingales to gold and silver-garnished things, and a casual reader might be tempted to accept these at face value, as simple physical objects meant to evoke a response either sensual or emotional; however, this is not the case. Keats, in the poem Ode Upon a Grecian Urn, turns the traditional understanding of physical objects on its head, and uses them not solid tangible articles, but instead as metaphors for and connections to abstract concepts, such as truth and eternity. In the poem, Keats dismisses the value of physical things as only corporeal for what he feels is more substantial and lasting, the indefinite and abstruse concepts behind them. It would be beneficial to gain a historical perspective on the poem. Ode Upon a Grecian Urn was written at the height of Keats' creative output, in May of 1819; in this same month he wrote the Ode Upon a Nightingale and the Ode Upon Melancholy. It is worth noting that two of the subjects of these odes are physical things, because Keats is chiefly remembered for his writing about physical, sensual things. Yet he betrays this attempt at classification; the Grecian urn is more than just an ancient piece of pottery which Keats values because it has in some ways defeated time ("when old age shall this generation waste / thou shalt remain. . . ", lines 46-47) and because it will never cease depicting youth and gaiety (". . .that cannot shed / Your leaves, nor ever bid the Spring adieu", lines 21-22). Keats values this urn because of the message it conveys (directly or indirectly, a topic which will reviewed later), ... ...- C - E. There is alliteration also in the poem; "silence and slow", "leaf-fringed legend", "Ah, happy, happy boughs" and "Of marble men and maidens overwrought" are examples of such. In conclusion, in the poem Ode Upon a Grecian Urn, the poet John Keats uses language and the object of his poem, a urn from Ancient Greece, to link abstract actions and concepts to physical, real, concrete things, in many different ways. Using iambic pentameter, and a unique rhyme scheme, and some devices of figurative language, Keats' sets up a melodic, beautifully flowing poem which well serves the purpose he gives it. Truly, abstract images and notions are seamlessly, subtly connected to the physical world around them. Works Cited Hunter, J. Paul 1999. The Norton Introduction to Poetry. New York, New York. Ode Upon a Grecian Urn, pages 323-324. Physical Value in Keats' Ode on a Grecian Urn Essay -- Ode on a Grecia Physical Value in Keats' Ode on a Grecian Urn The poetry of John Keats contains many references to physical things, from nightingales to gold and silver-garnished things, and a casual reader might be tempted to accept these at face value, as simple physical objects meant to evoke a response either sensual or emotional; however, this is not the case. Keats, in the poem Ode Upon a Grecian Urn, turns the traditional understanding of physical objects on its head, and uses them not solid tangible articles, but instead as metaphors for and connections to abstract concepts, such as truth and eternity. In the poem, Keats dismisses the value of physical things as only corporeal for what he feels is more substantial and lasting, the indefinite and abstruse concepts behind them. It would be beneficial to gain a historical perspective on the poem. Ode Upon a Grecian Urn was written at the height of Keats' creative output, in May of 1819; in this same month he wrote the Ode Upon a Nightingale and the Ode Upon Melancholy. It is worth noting that two of the subjects of these odes are physical things, because Keats is chiefly remembered for his writing about physical, sensual things. Yet he betrays this attempt at classification; the Grecian urn is more than just an ancient piece of pottery which Keats values because it has in some ways defeated time ("when old age shall this generation waste / thou shalt remain. . . ", lines 46-47) and because it will never cease depicting youth and gaiety (". . .that cannot shed / Your leaves, nor ever bid the Spring adieu", lines 21-22). Keats values this urn because of the message it conveys (directly or indirectly, a topic which will reviewed later), ... ...- C - E. There is alliteration also in the poem; "silence and slow", "leaf-fringed legend", "Ah, happy, happy boughs" and "Of marble men and maidens overwrought" are examples of such. In conclusion, in the poem Ode Upon a Grecian Urn, the poet John Keats uses language and the object of his poem, a urn from Ancient Greece, to link abstract actions and concepts to physical, real, concrete things, in many different ways. Using iambic pentameter, and a unique rhyme scheme, and some devices of figurative language, Keats' sets up a melodic, beautifully flowing poem which well serves the purpose he gives it. Truly, abstract images and notions are seamlessly, subtly connected to the physical world around them. Works Cited Hunter, J. Paul 1999. The Norton Introduction to Poetry. New York, New York. Ode Upon a Grecian Urn, pages 323-324.

Justifying the Iraq War :: Politics Wars Middle East Bush Iraq Essays

The ensuing war between the United States and Iraq has been a topic of controversy for several years now. Citizens of America have been divided since the war began and continue to cluster in groups that either fully support or have no support for President Bush and this ongoing war. Many would like to know who is right and who is wrong. Is this war with Iraq justifiable, or has America jumped into something that could have possibly been avoided? To answer these questions a comparison should be made between the characteristics of this war and those that constitute a just war. Just war is a term which implies that a certain war is acceptable and justifiable based on certain conditions. The conditions for having a just war include those which must be visible before a war can be declared (Jus Ad Bellum) as well as those that must be followed during a war (Jus In Bello). Some of the conditions that are necessary before war is declared include having a just cause for war, having the right intentions for war, and having no other alternative but war (1). Once engaged in a war other criteria apply such as the acts of war must be aimed those doing wrong and not at innocent civilians, prisoners of war should be treated humanely and with respect, and finally that there be no torture of any kind to soldiers of the opposing army. If these characteristics are put up against the United States and their strikes on Iraq, there is absolutely no way that the just war theory could classify this war as being just. The primary criterion for any war to be labeled as a just war is for that war to be declared for a just cause. The United States clearly did not have any such cause for launching a war against Iraq. The Bush administration’s newly proposed doctrine of pre-emption declares the right to initiate strikes against states that are deemed to be future threats against the US (2). Under the rules of just war, just cause is described as self defense against an attack in order to preserve innocent life, not pre-emptive strikes against possible dangers. The fact is, is that although the idea of attacking a nation that does not pose a threat today, but may pose one in the near future is as old as war itself, it completely goes against the precedents set forth by the just war theory(2). Justifying the Iraq War :: Politics Wars Middle East Bush Iraq Essays The ensuing war between the United States and Iraq has been a topic of controversy for several years now. Citizens of America have been divided since the war began and continue to cluster in groups that either fully support or have no support for President Bush and this ongoing war. Many would like to know who is right and who is wrong. Is this war with Iraq justifiable, or has America jumped into something that could have possibly been avoided? To answer these questions a comparison should be made between the characteristics of this war and those that constitute a just war. Just war is a term which implies that a certain war is acceptable and justifiable based on certain conditions. The conditions for having a just war include those which must be visible before a war can be declared (Jus Ad Bellum) as well as those that must be followed during a war (Jus In Bello). Some of the conditions that are necessary before war is declared include having a just cause for war, having the right intentions for war, and having no other alternative but war (1). Once engaged in a war other criteria apply such as the acts of war must be aimed those doing wrong and not at innocent civilians, prisoners of war should be treated humanely and with respect, and finally that there be no torture of any kind to soldiers of the opposing army. If these characteristics are put up against the United States and their strikes on Iraq, there is absolutely no way that the just war theory could classify this war as being just. The primary criterion for any war to be labeled as a just war is for that war to be declared for a just cause. The United States clearly did not have any such cause for launching a war against Iraq. The Bush administration’s newly proposed doctrine of pre-emption declares the right to initiate strikes against states that are deemed to be future threats against the US (2). Under the rules of just war, just cause is described as self defense against an attack in order to preserve innocent life, not pre-emptive strikes against possible dangers. The fact is, is that although the idea of attacking a nation that does not pose a threat today, but may pose one in the near future is as old as war itself, it completely goes against the precedents set forth by the just war theory(2).

Koito Case

Koito-Pickens-Toyota Case Question 1 The Japanese corporate governance system differs vastly from the US system. Discuss corporate governance issues that may arise under the Japanese keiretsu. The corporate governance system in Japan is widely different from the US one insofar as it mostly involves a unique business model called â€Å"Keiretsu†. A Keiretsu is a form of corporate structure that groups a set of companies with interlocking board of directors and common business interests. Thus, due to its particular structure, some governance problem may arise under this Japanese Keiretsu: ) Issues from the perspectives of financiers Because the business is considered almost like an extended family, the financing may become political and the Japanese Keiretsu will almost always give favor to members of their Keiretsu. This could lead the financiers, for instance, to finance a company member of their Keiratsu they wouldn’t have finance otherwise. As far as the potential fin anciers are concerned, the main issue is the difficulty to enter and invest in the Keiretsu. Getting financial information about the Keiretsu firms could be complicated insofar as the financial and accounting statements are not disclosed.Thus, such discretion could lead to an ambiguity or a lack of understanding from an outside perspective. Actually, the keiretsu are just trying to protect themselves from what they fear the most that is to say the yakuza and the greenmailing. b) Issues from the perspectives owners As mentioned above, the keiretsu are suspicious towards the â€Å"outside† and this behavior may make foreign owners face some difficulties. Because the keiretsu system is much more in favor of inside shareholders than the outside ones, the former may find some difficulties to make the most of their shareholder rights.And this can maybe explain why the outside shareholders are often a minority in comparison with the shareholders of the keiretsu. Moreover, even if on e of the outside owners becomes the biggest one, as T. Boone Pickens did, he may not be able to use his rights as he hoped. c) Issues from the perspectives suppliers One of the main issues for external suppliers is to the relationship between OEMs and suppliers that often leads to dumping on the prices and enables the outside supplier to compete with such cheap prices.As far as the integrated suppliers are concerned, the exclusive partnership with the keiretsu they belong enables them to do business with another leading firm and to gain market shares. d) Issues from the perspectives employees On the one hand and in case of horizontal integration, the very structure of a Keiretsu can lead into a confusion in management. The management transfers are so frequent that employees do not understand for which company they really work for is. One the other, the strong stability that comes out from this system could lead to a lack of action and performance from employees. Question 2What were T. Boone Pickens’ motives when he bought the share? In the eyes of many, Mr. Pickens was only acting as a front man for Mr. Watanabe, a well-known green mailer in order to pave a way to gain power and control over the corporation. Mr. Pickens denies all these accusations of greenmailing by claiming that he bought the share to carry out a â€Å"test case† in order to evaluate the accessibility of the market. In others words, his initiative has the only aim of checking whether the United States could make, in the future, profitable investments in Japan depending of the degree of welcome of the market.Moreover, it is not implausible to think that one motive of T. Boone Pickens was the quest of profit. It should be borne in mind T. Boone Pickens targeted Koito as an undervalued investment opportunity in so far as he anticipated a Koito stock rise due to the tight link between Toyota and Koito. The good performances of Koito stock combined with the rise of the net income an d sales reinforce this idea due to the fact that the shareholder’s average annual return has impressively increased. So the pursuit of rise of the dividends could have motivated him to buy the share.As the largest shareholder of Koito Manufacturing, is he entitled to representation on the board, does Japanese law allow for that? If not what in the law could he use to get an equivalent result? With 26. 4% of stock, T. Boone Pickens should have been entitled to representation on the board of Koito insofar as the Japanese law gives him rights due to the fact that he owns more than 10% of stock. But not so in the Japanese Keiretsu point of view. He was overwhelmingly denied board access in a 1989 annual meeting. †¦It is not a custom in Japan just to say, ‘I’ve become a major shareholder so I should become director. ’†, said Takao Matsuura, president Koito Manufacturing Ltd. There are reasons to wager that his seat on the board was compromised by the fact that the company considers him as a greenmailer. Knowing that T. Boone Pickens was planning to increase his stake to 30%, he could obtain board representation by acquiring 4% more than what he expected. In fact, the Japanese law states that those with at least 34% ownership could propose special shareholder resolutions.An alternative would be to establish a new relationship between Mr. Pickens and all the members of the keiretsu based on loyalty and transparency. They would not suspect him of greenmail anymore. We can suppose that T. Boone Pickens has chosen this way insofar as he supported the adoption of a proposal prohibiting Koito from paying greenmail. Question 3 Besides board representation, T. Boone Pickens demanded higher dividend payouts. Were his demands justified? Provide quantitative evidence to back your answer. Besides board representation, T.Boone Pickens asked for higher dividend payout saying that â€Å"Boone Co’s philosophy was to put stockholder inte rests first† (page 7) and in this very case, his demand for a higher dividend can be justified. Indeed, when we look at the dividend payout ratio for the period 1982 – 1985 (Table 1), it decreases meanwhile the retained earnings was increasing (Table 2). Moreover, at the same period, the proportion of cash was also increasing. In others words, the retained earnings were not invested enough and stay as cash.Then in 1986, we noticed that the payout ratio increased up to 39% and at the same time the retained earnings and the cash goes strongly down. Finally, almost the same phenomenon is observed between 1988 and 1990. In other words, the payout ratio is not positively correlated to the retained earnings which are not invested and stay as cash. Table 1 Table 2 Is there anything in the Japanese commercial code that would allow Pickens to try to get more dividends? If yes, why doesn’t he use this? If not, based on your experience as an international investment banker, what changes would you recommend him to propose?In order to increase dividends, T. Boone Pickens had several solutions. Indeed, many researches on the conflicts of interest between majority and minority shareholders show that dividend  payout  is negatively related to ownership concentration and support the assumption that large shareholders do not appear to use dividend policy to remove excess  cash. In other words,  firms with concentrated ownership are less likely to increase dividends when profitability increases and more likely to omit dividends when investment opportunities improve. So, T. Boone Pickens could decrease the ownership concentration of Koito.There are also some more aggressive solutions to get more dividends. T. Boone Pickens could increase his shares ownership in order to increase his decision power in the General Assembly insofar as â€Å"a owner of 34% or more of the outstanding stock could propose special shareholder resolutions†. Question 4 Pi ckens accused Toyota of limiting profits earned by Koito Manufacturing. Explain how the mechanism works? This mechanism is related to the very structure of keiretsu insofar as Toyota, like most Japanese OEM, owns equity positions in its suppliers.In 1986 almost half of Koito’s output was bought by Toyota and at the same time, Toyota has built a dominant position over Koito by having a 19%-part of Koito’s ownership. Therefore, Toyota was not just one of Koito’s customers but also one of its owners. Through its powerful influence and thanks to the close and informal relationship between Toyota and its suppliers, the car manufacturer had been able to negotiate supply contracts, lower prices and then limited profits earned by Koito. Is this a self-dealing transaction? According to Steven L.Emanuel (â€Å"Corporations†, 2009), a self-dealing transaction occurs when three following conditions are met : (1) A key player (officer, director or controlling sharehol der) and the corporation are on opposite sides of a transaction, (2) The key player has helped influence the corporation’s decision to enter the transaction (3) The key player’s personal financial interests are at least potentially in conflict with the financial interests of the corporation. In the case of Koito, 3 members out of 23 are Toyota’s executives.Even if these 3 members are no longer Toyota’s executives, the Japanese notion of loyalty and the business relations between Toyota and Koito (Toyota buy 48% of Koito’s output) could imply that these three chairmen could act in favor of Toyota or at least try to satisfy the two companies. And in this way, the supplier was treated unfairly and conflicts of interests might have occurred. If Pickens gets access to financial information, how can he set out to prove his accusations? If you were an investment banker, what accounts or data would you tell him to scrutinize.If Pickens gets access to finan cial information, he could analyze the Income Statement and compare the evolution of the growth of sales and the growth of gross profit over these past years. Generally, sales and gross profit evolve in the same direction unless there is a below cost-selling. However, here we noticed for example that in 1986, as sales had grown by almost 10,2%, gross profit had grown by 7% and that in 1990, when the sales had grown by 10. 85%, gross profit had only grown up by 2. 8%. Such comparisons could be setting off alarm bells and could point out the fact that Toyota is limiting profits earned by Koito Manufacturing.On the other hand and if he can, he could also compare directly the price of goods sold to Toyota with the price of the same goods sold to minor customers such as Hino Motors. A high difference between the two prices combined with the fact that three directors of Koito are retired Toyota executives, would prove these â€Å"self dealing transactions†. Would you suggest to cha nge the charter of the organization of Koito? As investment banker, I would suggest him to analyze thoroughly the income statements and the supply contracts between Toyota and Koito in details to reinforce his accusations.As far as the charter of the organization of Koito is concerned, I would suggest to add a clause which enables a person somehow related to a strong customer or a strong supplier to be appointed as director to Koito’s board of directors. Question 5 Toyota has threatened to cut all ties with Koito Manufacturing if Pickens take over the company. How would this affect Pickens investments? If you were a minority shareholder in Koito Manufacturing, whose side would you take? Calculate the value of your shares with or without Toyota.Because Toyota is the second largest shareholder in Koito and is its principal customer, representing 48% of the total sales (Exhibit 2), we may think that cutting ties with Koito Manufacturing will lead to huge losses, at least in the first year. Let’s then calculate the value of a share with and without Toyota. In order to use the Discounted Cash Flow methodology, here are the assumptions we made : * The value of the firm is equal to the value of the discounted cash flows for the next four years plus it’s terminal value. The same growth is expected for the coming four years (this growth was calculated as the mean of the previous years growth) * Because the lack of information concerning the cost of equity we used today Koito’s beta (1. 38), a risk free rate of 3% and a Rm of 10% (return on S&P) in order to calculate an approximative WACC. Our calculations provide us with a WACC of almost 8%. With Toyota : Without Toyota : If I were a minority shareholder I would probably take Pickens’ side because he puts shareholder interests first.However, I would be careful and make sure that making stockholders’ interest first instead of company’s one will not damage the entityâ€⠄¢s wealth. Based on your assessment of the case, are large shareholders an effective solution to corporate gouvernance problem? Based on the analysis of this case, it appears that being a large shareholder is not necessarily an effective solution to the corporate governance problem. Indeed, even if T. Boone Pickens is the largest shareholder, he actually has no influence on â€Å"management issues† including those which concern the amount of dividends paid.